Introduction to Linguistics free essay sample

What is meant by the field of linguistics? This introductory chapter concerns some dimensions of linguistics, which give us a general idea of what linguistics is, including the history of linguistic, grammar, and other disciplines of linguistics study. What does grammar consist of and what are the relationship between one and another? How many languages do human beings have the capacity to acquire? What other studies are made in recent centuries? Each of these aspects are clearly described, and other chapters will go into further details.While in this chapter we will provide some less detailed information on the various aspects of linguistics mentioned so far. 1. 1 Defining Linguistics There is nothing that can be said by mathematical symbols and relations which cannot also be said by words. The converse, however, is false. Much that can be and is said by words cannot successfully be put into equations, because it is nonsense. We will write a custom essay sample on Introduction to Linguistics or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page C. Truesdell Linguistics is a study to describe and explain the human faculty of language. There is no doubt that linguistics has changed through human development. 1. 1. 1 History of linguisticsThe history of linguistics can be divided into three periods: antiquity, middle ages and modern linguistics. Antiquity Dating back to earlier period of linguistics, linguistics is often associated with a need to disambiguate discourse, especially for ritual texts or in arguments. Ancient Indians made a big contribution to linguistics development. Similarly, ancient Chinese played a key role in improving linguistics development. Around the same time as the Indian developed, ancient Greek philosophers were also debating the nature and origins of language.During this period, syntax and the use of particles developed fast. In addition, scholars proposed that word meanings are derived from sentential usage. 1. 1. 1. 2 Middle Ages In Middle East, in terms of expanding Islam in 8th century, a large number of people learn Arabic. Because of this, the earliest grammar came to being gradually. At the same time, Sibawayh, a famous scholar, wrote a book to distinguish phonetics from phonology. In the 13th century, Europeans introduced the notion of universal grammar. Modern Linguistics Modern linguistics beginning can date back to the late 18th century.With time passing by, the study of linguistics contains increasing contents. Meanwhile, it is used in other fields, computer, e. g. , has come to be called computational linguistics. The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrower sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories of language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.However, linguistics is only a part of a much larger academic discipline, semiotics. It is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one single language of any one society, just like Chinese or French, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operated as systems of communication in their societies or communities. 1. 1. 2 An Interesting ComparisonLinguistics is a broad field to study, therefore, a linguist sometimes is only able to deal with one aspect of language at a time, and thus various branches arise: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology and so on. Suppose that the study of linguistics can be considered to be a computer, so linguistics is equal to the CPU, which supports all the other parts. Moreover, sound card would stand for phonetics and phonology, and then morphology and semantics are like the memory of the computer.Whats more, syntax plays as an important role to translate single words to a whole sentence which is full of meaning, just like a graphics card, which uses picture to make sense of the idea of memory stick. Finally, everything is ready, it s time to use computer and the same goes for language acquisition. Very interestingly, the properties of computer are amazingly similar to human language. from www. iflytek. com/english/Research-Introduction%20to%20TTS. htm Above all, linguistics is concerned with the study of verbal language particularly speech and written language.Whats more, language is a system and there is a set of options of which one must be chosen depending on the purpose and context. (Marie E. John P. , 1991, p. 64). 1. 2 The broad study of language Language is a highly complex system of communication, so it sometimes will be called a ‘system of systems’. It is used to construct, exchange, express, and record information and ideas. It performs these functions effectively because it is based upon systems that are understood by those using the language. In this chapter, four topics will be concerned.They are phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. In this section, some overall definitions and interactions among the four parts will be talked about. 1. 2. 1 Phonology In order to assist learners at the early stages of literacy, it is very important to understand the relationship between sounds and letters. The sounds of speech are studied in phonetics and phonology. (Marie E. John P, 1991) 1. 2. 1. 1 Definitions of phonology and phonetics Phonology is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occurs in a language and the patterns wherein they fall.In other words, we study the abstract side of the sounds of language, a related but different subject that we call phonology (Peter, 2000). In short, it is about patterns and roots. On the other hand, it is more strict linguistics. Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. In common, speech sound is used everywhere, and it can be divided into three parts: articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics. . 2. 1. 2 The difference between phonology and phonetics It seems that phonology and phonetics are similar. That is why both of them make learners confused. In fact, they have great difference. Phonology pays attention to how speech sounds of a language pattern are put together according to regular rules. On the contrary, phonetics focuses mainly on description of how speech sounds are made. For instance, if someone says â€Å"we should get our two lips close together and then push them open with a strong air†, that means he or she is relevant to phonetics field.

Come See essays

Come See essays Prejudice. Discrimination. Hate. Genocide. Concentration camps. Ethnic cleansing. Throughout the course of the history of the world, it has experienced many dark and evil times. From the Nazis of Germany, to the recent tragedies of September 11th, we as a society have come together time and time again to rise from the peril and become even stronger. What happens though, when our own country decides to go through with a grave injustice? The feelings and reactions to this were portrayed excellently in the film, Come See the Paradise. The movie relives a time during World War II when we as Americans decided to discriminate Japanese-Americans. In this memo I will include a synopsis of the movie and will also my add my personal feelings and reflections on the effect of this movie. The movie opens in Brooklyn, New York. The year is 1936. We are introduced to our main character, Jack (played by Dennis Quaid) inside a movie theater. Jack and his group of Union members set fire to this theater. It is then learned that he is a member of the movie theater union in New York. This failed attack on this theater prompts our Irishman lead character to be kicked out of his union and told to lay low for awhile. Jack is left with no where to turn so he heads to San Francisco to live with his brother and find a real job. He is quickly kicked out of his brothers house and finds a job at a theater found in China town. Jacks arrival to this small theater leads to a friendship with the owners son , Charlie. The two bond and go to lunch everyday. This is when Jack becomes infatuated with his sister, Lily. She joins them for something to eat one day and Jack, wasting no time, kisses her. Their innocent kisses turn into dates which infuriates Lilys father. Jack is quickly fired and forbidden to see Lily again. The beautiful thing about love though, is that absence makes the heart grow fonder. There was nothing that would s...

Economic History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economic History - Essay Example Some believe that the living standard of the common worker fell during the revolution, while others are of the view that it rose and everyone was better off. This essay will try to review the factors that contributed to the industrial revolution to be adopted first of all by England, rather than by any other European country. Though it is hard to pinpoint, but most historians agree that the Industrial Revolution basically originated in England with a series of social and technological innovations. Between 1760 and 1860, the progress in technology and education and an increasing capital stock, transformed England into the workshop of the world. This transformation came to be known as the Industrial Revolution, which gave rise to the income of not only its people; but as its effects spread, to the rest of the Western world as well. Historians also agree that this revolution was one of the most important historical events, making it possible for a rapid transition to the modern age, but disagree with the different aspects of this event. A question that really interests economic historians is that why did the eighteenth century industrial revolution start in Europe rather than in any other part of the world, like France and China or India. Though numerous factors like ecology, government and culture have been suggested but some historian argue that as China and Europe were similar in the 1700s, the crucial difference which resulted in the Industrial Revolution in Europe were the sources of coal and other raw material near the manufacturing centers. This allowed Europe to economically expand in a way China could not. Some also credit the difference in the belief systems as Europe focuses on the individual, while the Chinese beliefs are centered round relationships between people. Similarly, India was spilt up into many kingdoms, each fighting for supremacy. Its economy was dependent on cotton and agriculture and technological innovations were completely non-existent. The palace treasuries with huge amount of wealth, was easily moved to Britain making it more convenient for England to use it as needed. England also had huge natural financial profits which it gained from its many overseas colonies. Moreover, the aristocracy in continental Europe believed that as compared to the common people, they were born with higher virtues and the pursuit of money was a characteristic of lower class. The capitalistic and mercantile in England as well as the whole of Europe was achieved by the middle or the non-aristocratic classes. 'Why was England First:' According to Crafts (1977) the comparative approach to the two problems posed by the Industrial Revolution are why the breakthrough took place in Western Europe, and within Europe, where and when did it occur. It provides valuable insight into the economical growth from the general perspective and a better understanding of England's economic growth from the aspect of the Industrial Revolution. Crouzet (1967) is also of the view that this comparative approach can be greatly helpful for those economic historians who are particularly interested in the key problem of growth. And by systematically comparing the

Business Strategy of a New Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business Strategy of a New Business - Essay Example These success drivers are obvious but it is amazing how many businesses ignore their importance. This is particularly true in difficult markets or economic recession where short term financial constraints lead to cost cutting. The mission of the new business is to provide high-quality delivery services to wide target audience. The original mission has made it clear that it is in the relatively unexploited sector that the new business sees its clearest opportunity for innovation. The new business sets out to create a range of high-quality services that are distinctive in type. The main goals and strategic objectives are to get and keep a customer. Also, the new delivery company is aimed to achieve competitive advantage and sustainable competitive creating value for their customers, select markets where they can excel and present a moving target to their competitors by continually improving their position. Three of the most important factors are innovation, quality and low cost (Chase and Jacobs 54). This technique is intended to capture the key characteristics of the environment in which the business operates. These factors, which may be supportive or constraining to the future development of the organization, provide the backcloth' against which the future strategies and plans must be formulated. In product delivery industry, corporate resources are balanced both internally and externally. Internal balance is achieved by the coordination of all marketing activity and its integration with the other areas of the business. External balance is concerned with the continuous adjustment of a company to its market environments through changes in product, price, package, channels, advertising, and selling. In this sense, marketing forces are viewed by the new venture as shaping the total organization and all the business functions (Drejer 92). Political changes do not have a great impact on this business. A special attention should be paid to economic processes (gas and oil prices) and demographic changes. Changing environments create market opportunities for the delivery company that must be reflected in adaptive corporate action. Resources cannot merely be directed to the cultivation of old markets if competitive positions are to be enhanced (Schien 77). Core Competencies For the new delivery company, core competencies are clear distinctive brand proposition and low cost, exceptional service quality and effective solutions for customers. Strategy theory based on core competencies-or technology, since these two words are not clearly defined as mutually exclusive conceptions-has become an alternative approach to strategy making. The new business deliberately plans a competitive strategy based on excessive inventory levels and long customer lead times (Pittengrew et al 71). Thus, there are some deficiencies in the organizational systems that can be solved only through a process of systems improvement. The applicability of operations strategies mentioned above is obviously greater in processes producing high volumes. The ideas for waste reduction used in conjunction with these systems are generally applicable: setup time reduction, better quality control,

Southeast Asian in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Southeast Asian in the US - Essay Example It has been statistically proven that the influx of refugees in Massachusetts from the East and Southeast Asia is on the rise since the number grew from 169 (2006) to 498 (2009) (Refugee and Immigrant Health Program, Massachusetts Department of Public Health 1). The Southeast Asian refugees come from diverse and distinct cultures across the world that makes it impossible to assimilate them in a unified group. The Massachusetts government was amazed by the complex diversity of the large refugee groups, who flew their country owing to various historical circumstances. In addressing the current refugee problems, there is a need for a perspective development that takes care of some consistencies in terms of the refugee behavior and experience. This development perspective would help in addressing the social and psychological problems of the refugees, and in the same context, the refugee behavior can be socially patterned. This developed perspective strategy would help in analyzing the refugee problems from historical, comparative and general views. These analytical views prioritize the refugee problems as recurring with identifiable characteristics, casualty sets and similar patterns of behavior. Indeed this analysis will help in treating speci fic refugee problems as atypical, unique and personal historical events in line with the general subject. The refugee problems, behavior and situations, which occur in many regions, contexts and times should also be carefully analyzed. Another experience with the Southeast Asian refugees is little analysis given to the refugee camps. Only a few materials exist in the camps, and just a few scholars have made attempts to examine the effects of experience at the camps on the refugee behavior. Still, there are no camps classification systems nor some of the important camp experience elements.

The State of Nature and its Implications for Civilization in Hobbes and

The State of Nature and its Implications for Civilization in Hobbes and Rousseau In his Leviathan Thomas Hobbes expresses a philosophy of civilization which is both practical and just and stems from a clear moral imperative. He begins with the assertion that in the state of nature man is condemned to live a life â€Å"solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short.† It is in the interest of every man to rise above this â€Å"state of nature† and to give up certain rights so that the violent nature of the human animal can be subdued. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s vision of the state of nature parallels that of Hobbes but for its more optimistic tone: â€Å"I assume that men reach a point where the obstacles to their preservation in a state of nature prove greater than the strength that each man has to preserve himself in that state.† In general, Rousseau’s words prove reasonably less severe than Hobbes’s. According to Hobbes the bestial rights that a man is forced to give up must also be given up by every other man if civilization is to quell the state of nature. This surrendering of rights then forms covenant of peace which mankind has agreed upon collectively to rise above the state of nature. Hobbes argues that it is human reason that has necessarily led men to embrace this covenant: â€Å"And Reason suggesteth convenient Articles of Peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement . . . .† These Articles of Peace Hobbes calls â€Å"Laws of Nature† and argues that while they do not exist in a state of nature they are nonetheless natural laws which potentially exist there. â€Å"A Law of Nature (Lex Naturalis,) is a Precept, or generall Rule, found out by Reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit, that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved.† That is, a n atural law is a result of a reasoning which commands that each man protect his own life. With the state of nature as terrible as Hobbes describes it, it is reasonable for a man to wish to put an end to it, as he then has a greater chance of protecting his own life. Without certain agreements between individuals they interact in a manner in which they are all a constant threat to one another. Therefore Hobbes arrives at the first fundamental law of nature: â€Å"That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtain... ...iety, both agree that their contemporary world is not a world of the human animal. Changes have occurred not only in the way humans are ordered, but in humans themselves as well. Their theories differ in their beliefs about these changes. Hobbes is able to recognize the current state of man as having transcended its most basic nature. Rousseau agrees with Hobbes but assumes even more of man. He believes that it is possible not only for humans to be at peace but also to be free. Just how far society has transcended the state of nature in today’s world is debatable, but one gets the feeling in reading these two authors that Hobbes underestimates human nature and Rousseau overestimates it. Perhaps the truth lies somewhere in the middle, for many societies today are barely able to achieve peace within their borders, while a handful can truly be said to have a liberated populace. It is certainly no coincidence, however, that Rousseau’s vision of society heralds liberty a s its highest ideal and that the most progressive states of today do likewise. Mankind’s ever evolving flight from the state of nature moves people to continually expect more from their society – as well as themselves.

Introduction to Oboe and Bassoon

An Introduction Oboe and Bassoon By Marie A Rogers 300005290 Woodwind Techniques 1 1010-1100 Mr. Robinson The oboe is a soprano-range double reed instrument with a length of 62cm. Its wooden tube is distinguished by a conical bore that expands into a flaring bell. The modern oboe’s range extends from the B flat below middle C (b3 flat) to about 3 octaves higher (A6). The oboe has a very narrow conical bore. It is played with a double reed consisting of two thin blades of cane tied together on a small metal tube called a staple, which is inserted into the reed socket at the top of the instrument.Traditionally made from African Blackwood, also called grenadilla, the instrument is made in 3 parts. The top joint has 10 or 11 holes, most of which are manipulated by the players left hand. The bottom joint also has 10 holes, which are predominately controlled by the right hand. The bell has 2 keys that are not used very much by the player. Oboe History The baroque oboe first appeared in the French court in the mid-17th century, where it was called â€Å"hautbois†. This name was also used for its predecessor, the shawm. The basic form of the hautbois was derived from the shawm.Major differences between the two instruments include division into 3 sections or joints, for the hautbois, and the elimination of the pirouette, a cup placed over the reed that enabled the shawm players to produce greater volume. The latter develop more than any other, was responsible for bringing the hautbois indoors where, thanks to its more refined sound and style of playing, it took up a permanent place in the orchestra. Classical period brought upon an oboe whose bore was gradually narrowed, and the instrument became outfitted with several keys, among them were those for the notes D#, F, and G#.A key similar to the modern octave key was also added called the â€Å"slur key†. It was used more like the â€Å"flick† keys on the modern German Bassoon. Only later did French instrument makers redesign the octave key to be used in the manner of the modern key i. e. held open or upper register, closed for lower. The narrower bore allowed the higher notes to be played easier, and composers began to utilize the upper register of the oboe in their works. Oboe Reeds Most professional oboists make their own reeds since every oboist needs a slightly different reed to suit his or her individual needs.By making their own reeds, oboists can precisely control factors such as tone color and intonation. Novice players often begin playing on â€Å"fibrecane reed† which is made of synthetic material. Fibrecane reeds are much easier for the novice to control and take a shorter amount of time to ‘break in†, and usually last longer. After learning on fibrecane reeds, which are available in several degrees of hardness, a medium reed usually being used. These reed, like Clarinet and Bassoon reeds are made of arundo donax. Different types of OboesTh e oboe has several family members. The most widely known today is the Cone Anglais or English Horn, the tenor (or alto) member of the family. A transposing instrument, it is pitched in F, a perfect 5th lower than the oboe. The Oboe d’ Amore the alto (or mezzo soprano) member of the family, is pitched in A, a minor 3rd lower than the Oboe. A less commonly played instrument is the Bass Oboe which is an octave lower than the oboe. Even less common is the Hecklephone, which has a wider bore and larger tone than the bass oboe. Only 165 hecklephones have ever been made.Its hard to find competent players because of the rarity of the instrument. The least common is the mussette or (piccolo oboe), the sopranino member of the family (usually pitched in Eflat or F above the oboe), and the Contrabass Oboe ( typically pitched in C, 2 octaves deeper than the standard oboe). The Bassoon Bassoon is a member of the double-reed family, and generally plays in the bass and tenor registers. The b assoon plays most commonly in concert bands, orchestras and chamber ensembles. It is a non transposing instrument.The bassoon is generally made of maple, with medium hard types of wood, such as sycamore, maple and sugar maple preferred. Less expensive models are also made of materials such as polypropylene and ebonite, primarily for student and outdoor use. The bassoon is 4. 4 feet long. The bore of the bassoon is conical, and the two parallel bores of the boot joint are connected at the bottom of the instrument with a U- shaped metal connector. Both bore and tone holes are precision machined, and each instrument is finished by hand for proper tuning.The bocal connects the reed to the rest of the instrument and is inserted into a socket at the top of the wing joint. The range of the bassoon begins at bflat 1 and extends upward over 3 octaves. Bassoon history Earlier bassoons were called â€Å"Dulcian†. They two instruments are quite similar; they both have a double reed fitte d into a metal crook, obliquely drilled tone holes, and a conical bore that doubles back on itself. The origins of the dulcian are not clear, but by the mid 16th century it was available in 8 different sizes from soprano to great bass.Its primary function seems to have been to provide the bass in a typical wind band of the time. Early â€Å"dulcian† technique was rather primitive, with 8 finger holes and generally one key, indicating that it could only play in a few keys. The Baroque period was when the bassoon became very similar to what it is today. The man most likely responsible for developing the true Bassoon was Martin Hottorre. He was responsible for breaking the instrument down the one-piece dulcian into 4 sections (bell, bass joint, boot and wing joint).The modern Bassoon exists in two distinct primary forms the Buffett system and the Heckle system. Most of the world plays the Heckle system, while the Buffett system is primarily in France, Belgium, and parts of Latin America. Bassoon techniques The Bassoon is held diagonally in front of the player, but unlike the flute, oboe, and clarinet, it cannot be supported by the players hands alone. Some means of additional support is required; the most common ones used are a neck strap or shoulder harness attached to the top of the boot joint, a seat trap attached to the base of the boot joint which is laid across the chair seat prior to sitting down. To stabilize the right hand, many Bassoonists use an adjustable common shaped apparatus called a â€Å"crutch†, which mounts to the boot joint. An aspect of Bassoon playing technique called flicking involves the momentary pressing or â€Å"flicking† of the high A, C, and D keys by the left hand thumb at the beginning of certain note in the middle octave in order to eliminate the cracking or brief microphonic that happens without the use of the key.Bassoon Reeds Bassoon reeds, made of Arundo donax cane, are often made by the players themselves , although beginner bassoonists tend to buy their reeds from professional reed makers or use reeds made by their teachers. Reeds begin with a length of tube cane that is split into three or four pieces. The cane is then trimmed and gouged to the desired thickness, leaving the bark attached. After soaking, the gouged cane is cut to the proper shape and milled to the desired thickness, or profile, by removing material from the bark side.This can be done by hand with a file; more frequently it is done with a machine or tool designed for the purpose. After the profiled cane has soaked once again it is folded over in the middle. Prior to soaking, the reed maker will have lightly scored the bark with parallel lines with a knife; this ensures that the cane will assume a cylindrical shape during the forming stage. On the bark portion, the reed maker binds on three coils or loops of brass wire to aid in the final forming process. The exact placement of these loops can vary somewhat depending on the reed maker.The bound reed blank is then wrapped with thick cotton or linen thread to protect it, and a conical steel mandrel (which sometimes has been heated in a flame) is quickly inserted in between the blades. Using a special pair of pliers, the reed maker presses down the cane, making it conform to the shape of the mandrel. (The steam generated by the heated mandrel causes the cane to permanently assume the shape of the mandrel. ) The upper portion of the cavity thus created is called the â€Å"throat†, and its shape has an influence on the final playing characteristics of the reed.The lower, mostly cylindrical portion will be reamed out with a special tool, allowing the reed to fit on the bocal. After the reed has dried, the wires are tightened around the reed, which has shrunk after drying. The lower part is sealed (a nitrocellulose-based cement such as Duco may be used) and then wrapped with thread to ensure both that no air leaks out through the bottom of the reed and that the reed maintains its shape. The wrapping itself is often sealed with Duco or clear nail varnish (polish).The bulge in the wrapping is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"Turk's head†Ã¢â‚¬â€it serves as a convenient handle when inserting the reed on the bocal. To finish the reed, the end of the reed blank, originally at the center of the unfolded piece of cane, is cut off, creating an opening. The blades above the first wire are now roughly 27–30 mm (1. 1–1. 2 in) long. In order for the reed to play, a slight bevel must be created at the tip with a knife, although there is also a machine that can perform this function. Other adjustments with the knife may be necessary, depending on the hardness and profile of the cane and the requirements of the player.The reed opening may also need to be adjusted by squeezing either the first or second wire with the pliers. Additional material may be removed from the sides (the â€Å"channels†) or tip to b alance the reed. Additionally, if the â€Å"e† in the staff is sagging in pitch, it may be necessary to â€Å"clip† the reed by removing 1–2 mm (0. 039–0. 079 in) from its length. Playing styles of individual bassoonists vary greatly; because of this, most advanced players will make their own reeds, in the process customizing them to their individual playing requirements.